The Wannsee Conference

On this day, January 20, in 1942, during World War Two, took place perhaps the most notorious meeting in history. In a grand villa on the picturesque banks of Berlin’s Lake Wannsee, met fifteen high-ranking Nazis.

The Final Solution
Chaired by the chief of the security police, 37-year-old Reinhard Heydrich, the fifteen men represented various agencies of the Nazi apparatus. Heydrich's objective, as tasked by Hermann Göring (and therefore, presumably, Hitler), was to secure the support of these various agencies for the implementation of the 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question', the systematic annihilation of the European Jew.

The mass murder of Jews was already taking place. The initial method of shooting Jews on the edges of pits was considered too time-consuming and detrimental on the mental health of the murder squads. The squads, often recruited from the local populations in conquered areas, willingly collaborated in the killings but eventually found the task gruelling.

Seeking alternative methods, the Germans began experimenting with gas, using carbon monoxide in mobile units but although better this was still considered too slow and inefficient. Eventually, after experiments on Soviet prisoners of war in Auschwitz during September 1941, Zyklon B gas was discovered as a rapid and efficient means of murder.

An industrial level of murder
The Wannsee Conference, as it became known, discussed escalating the killing to a new, industrial level. Heydrich estimated that 11 million Jews still resided in Europe and needed to be "combed from West to East." He produced a list of nations and their respective number of Jews, not only in countries already under Nazi control but also neutral nations and those not yet occupied. For example, Britain, according to Heydrich's figures, contained 330,000 Jews; Sweden 8,000; Spain 6,000; Switzerland 18,000; and Ireland 4,000, plus 200 Jews in Albania.

"Natural reduction"
The more able-bodied Jews, said Heydrich, would be used for labour "whereby a large number will doubtlessly be eliminated through natural reduction." Those that survived the labour, the toughest, would, if liberated, be the "core of a new Jewish revival," therefore they had to be "dealt with appropriately." The minutes of the meeting, written up by Adolf Eichmann, were littered with such euphemisms but, according to Eichmann at his trial in 1962, once the official meeting had finished, they spoke openly of executions and liquidation.

No one at the meeting objected or questioned the proposals, and Heydrich hadn't expected any but nonetheless was pleased with the level of enthusiasm. The rest of the meeting discussed definitions of ‘Jewishness’ – to what extent persons of mixed blood could be defined as Jewish; and whether children born of mixed marriages (German and Jew) were Jewish or not. And veterans of the First World War, it was decided, would be sent to ghettos specifically for the aged.

Satisfied, Heydrich drew the meeting to a close. The men retired to comfortable chairs to smoke, drink brandy and gossip whilst admiring the view over the lake. The meeting, barely an hour and a half long, was over.

The villa at Wannsee is now a holocaust museum.

Rupert Colley.
Read all about World War Two and Nazi Germany in just one hour at historyinanhour.com

Hitler's Mein Kampf - My Nephew's Evil Christmas Present

For Christmas I was given a copy of Hitler's Mein Kampf (My Struggle) by my 25-year-old nephew who, as I opened it, said, "It's the sort of thing you're into, isn't it, Uncle Rupert?" For a moment I thought he was implying I was some sort of fascist.

The paperback edition that was so neatly wrapped up in Father Christmas wrapping paper was a reprint of Ralph Manhein's 1943 translation with a fascinating 50-page introduction by D.C. Watt, which is, by far, the best bit of the whole thing.

To my relief, my nephew added, "World War Two and all that, you're into that, aren't you?" "Yes," I said, "very much so."

He looked pleased; this "evil book" as it's described on the blurb, had been a good choice.

Currently I'm working on the third ebook for the History In An Hour series - the Nazi Germany, so my nephew's present was a timely one. I'm skim-reading it at the moment because it isn't the easiest nor most pleasant of reads and at over 600 pages I have a hundred other things I'd rather be reading (sorry, dear nephew). But still - dedication to the cause, etc.

Today I was reading up about the French occupation of the Ruhr during the Weimar era and noticed the French troops went in today, 87 years ago - the 11th January, 1923. Not the most exciting anniversary and not exactly one imprinted on Europe's consciousness but being a sucker for anniversaries I couldn't resist mentioning it. What exactly were the French doing in the Ruhr? Here, as a first draft, is my resume of that chapter of German history:

"By 1922 the Weimar government, struggling to pay the reparations demanded by the Versailles Treaty, had stopped paying them altogether. Angered by this breaking of the rules, the French and Belgium governments sent troops into the Ruhr, an essential hub of German industry and source of raw materials. When the outraged German workers refused to work for the new occupiers, the French sent in their own workforce.

"The occupation of the Ruhr caused chaos for Germany's economy, triggering a period of high unemployment and hyperinflation. And still the Weimar was unable to meet its Versailles obligations."

I go on to mention the hyperinflation and the lifetime savings wiped out overnight, and the American 'Dawes Plan', the subsequent recovery of the Weimar economy and finally France's withdrawl from the Ruhr in 1925.

Now - back to Mein Kampf.

Rupert Colley.
To read about Nazi Germany, go to historyinanhour.com

The Marshall Plan

George C. Marshall, the originator of the post-Second World War Marshall Plan, was born today, 31st December, in 1880. US President, Harry S. Truman, once referred to Marshall as "the greatest living American", and in January 1947 appointed him as his Secretary of State where Marshall formulated his plan, the European Recovery Programme (ERP).

The Cold War

More commonly known as the Marshall Plan, the ERP aimed to revive Europe's post-war economies, to alleviate the hardship, and to deprive communism its foothold in Europe just as the Cold War began taking shape. Once these economies were stabilised, America too would benefit as trade between Europe and America increased.

The offer was extended to the countries of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union itself. The Soviet Union had received huge loans from America during the war to help defeat Germany and now, during the immediate post-war years, further aid would have been hugely beneficial to a country still suffering economically from the consequences of its war effort.

Stalin says no

But Stalin was never going to allow American / capitalist interference with the Soviet economy, and nor would he permit his satellites. However, Czechoslovakia and Poland saw the obvious benefits of American aid, and both accepted invitations to attend a conference, set for July 1947, to discuss the Marshall Plan.

Furious, Stalin forbade them to go. Meekly, representatives of the Czechoslovakian and Polish governments traipsed to Moscow to face their dressing-down from Stalin, and returned home to politely decline the invitation to Paris.

"If Italy goes red"

In April 1948, Italy went to the polls. American Congress was worried: "If Italy goes red, Communism cannot be stopped in Europe," and threatened to prohibit Italy from receiving Marshall Aid if the Communists won. They did not.

The Marshall Plan, therefore, had the effect of reaffirming Churchill's concept of the Iron Curtain by forcing countries to decide whether their loyalties lay to the west or east. Loyalties that would endure throughout the Cold War. Sixteen countries finally accepted aid, which by 1951, had amounted to $13 billion.

Marshall was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace for his contribution to the recovery of Europe after the Second World War. He died in on October 16th, 1959.

Rupert Colley.

Read about the whole of the Cold War in just sixty minutes.

The Execution of Beria

Today, 23 December, 56 years ago, in 1953, saw the execution of a monster. Born in Georgia on March 28, 1899, Lavrenti Beria rose to prominence during the Russian Revolution and during the 1920s became a firm favourite of Josef Stalin, a fellow-Georgian. In 1938 Beria was appointed head of the dreaded secret police, the NKVD.

"Plump, greenish, and pale"
A brutish, inhumane man, he declared in 1937 that enemies "of the party of Lenin and Stalin will be mercilessly crushed and destroyed". He was true to his word and played a major role in Stalin's Great Purges of the 1930s, sending countless numbers to the gulags or to be executed. Yugoslavian writer, Milovan Djilas, described Beria's physical appearance as "plump, greenish, and pale, with soft damp hands. With [a] square-cut mouth and bulging eyes behind his pince-nez."

Following Stalin's death in March 1953, Beria seemed favourite to succeed. Other members of the Politburo feared for their safety: "As long as that bastard's alive, none of us can feel safe," said one.

Beria arrested
Contrary to his character, Beria implemented an amnesty, releasing many from the gulags but many saw this as mere attempt to impose his claim on succeeding Stalin. But it wasn't enough - on June 26 Beria was arrested on trumphed-up charges, such as spying for the British. Nikita Khrushchev (who was to replace Stalin) described Beria's reaction when arrested: "He dropped a load in his pants!"

From his cell, Beria wrote several groveling letters to his Politburo colleagues pleading his innocence and devotion to the party and the communist cause. Exasperated by the number of letters, Khrushchev ordered the removal of Beria's pen and paper.

The execution of Beria
In December 1953 Beria was tried. The whole case was a mockery but no more than Beria had subjected so many of his victims to. He was, unsurprisingly, found guilty and sentenced to be shot. Beria fell on all fours and begged for mercy. He was taken down and promptly shot. He died as so many of his victims did.

Rupert Colley

The Birth of Stalin

130 years ago today, December 21st 1879, in Georgia, was born one of the greatest tyrants, Josef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, better known to history by his adopted name - Stalin, 'man of steel'. Training to be a priest, Stalin was expelled from his seminary in 1899 and from there followed the revolutionary path of a Marxist.


Stalin's rise
Following the October Revolution in 1917 and the formation of the Soviet Union, Lenin delegated numerous tasks to his eager protege culminating in 1922 with Stalin's appointment as General Secretary of the Communist Party. But Lenin began to regret his decision and Stalin's fast-track rise through the party hierarchy believing Stalin to lack the necessary tact and skill for such a post.

"Stalin is too rude."
In January 1923 Lenin penned a secret memorandum suggesting Stalin's removal from power: "I am not sure whether (Stalin) will always be capable of using (his) authority with sufficient caution... Stalin is too rude and this defect... becomes intolerable in a Secretary-General. That is why I suggest that the comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post and appointing another man in his stead."

The other man Lenin had in mind was Stalin's great rival Lev Trotsky. Together with Trotsky, Lenin was going to use the party congress in April that year as his opportunity to have Stalin removed. But in March Lenin suffered a stroke, his third, which confined him to home and effectively ended his political career.

After Lenin
In January 1924 Lenin died. Trotsky may have been the obvious successor but two of his rivals, Lev Kamenev and Grigori Zinoviev, suppressed Lenin's memorandum and decided to side with Stalin, from whom they felt they had nothing to fear. Trotsky was promptly sidelined and eventually expelled from the party and exiled from the country.

But if Kamenev and Zinoviev thought they could tame the Georgian beast they were wrong. Stalin sided with Nikolai Bukharin to have them removed from the party before turning on Bukharin as well. Between 1936 and 1938 Kamenev, Zinoviev and Bukharin were all put on show trial accused of ridiculous charges, sentenced and executed.

Absolute power
Stalin's power was now absolute and he was to rule the Soviet Union unopposed, respected and feared until his death, aged 73, in March 1953.

Rupert Colley.

Battle of the Bulge

World War Two. 65 years ago today (December 16, 1944) saw the start of the German 'Ardennes Offensive' (the Battle of the Bulge). The Allied forces were advancing towards Germany, pushing the Germans back town by town and this was Hitler's last attempt to stop the momentum. The aim was to cut the Allied armies in two and then push on towards the port of Antwerp, a vital Allied stronghold.

"Nuts"
Heavy fog prevented the Americans from employing airpower and the German advance forced a dent in the American line (hence battle of the 'Bulge'). Germans, dressed in American uniforms and driving captured US jeeps, caused confusion and within five days the Germans had surrounded almost 20,000 Americans at the crossroads of Bastogne. When the German commander gave his American equivalent, Major-General Anthony McAuliffe, the chance to surrender, McAuliffe answered with just the one word - "Nuts."

The bursting of the Bulge
Near Christmas the fog lifted, the Americans launched their planes, the Germans ran out of fuel and the bulge was burst. The Ardennes Offensive did delay the Allied advance but by January 28 the line was back to where it was on December 16. The march on Berlin was back on.

The struggle and conditions at Bastogne are brought to life in the excellent US TV series Band of Brothers. There was also a 1965 film starring Henry Fonda and Terry Savalas, "The Battle of the Bulge", a classic American epic where sometimes, it has to be said, historical accuracy took second place to entertainment but none the worse for that!

Rupert Colley.
Read all about World War Two at historyinanhour.com

Solidarity - the last nails in the coffin of communism

A wonderful country Poland. Only a couple hours from London by plane. But it wasn't always the case.

When I was a sixth former in England during the early eighties and the era of the Cold War, Poland might as well have been on the other side of the world for all we knew about it. Apart from the occasional England v Poland football match, Poland could have been North Korea.

In September 1980, the workers formed Solidarity - the first trade union, of sorts, within the Eastern Bloc. When Lech Walesa, Solidarity's leader, signed the charter, he did so with a large pen bearing the image of Pope John Paul II, the Polish pope, and such a figure of inspiration for the Poles living under communism. But at the time my friends and I were more interested that The Police had got to number one ('Don't Stand So Close To Me').

I visited Gdansk, home of Solidarity, in 2005 and my souvenir mug is a treasured possession.

But 28 years ago today, 13 December 1981, the Polish government, fearful of Solidarity's increasing influence, clamped down on its people, proclaimed martial law, imposed curfews and sent in the tanks. Solidarity was banned, its leaders, including Lech Walesa, arrested. When they came for him, Walesa said: "This is the moment of your defeat. These are the last nails in the coffin of communism."

I remember watching on TV at home: the tanks on the street, the scattering crowds, the frightened faces. Although 17, I could not understand what it all meant. My mother tried to explain, tried to tell me about "freedom" - this thing that I had and had no idea I had it.

I know now but I still don't really appreciate it. No one can unless they've experienced the opposite. It's similar to trying to explain the full meaning of hunger. We know we're lucky; we just can't fathom how lucky.

Rupert Colley
Read about the Cold War in just one hour at historyinanhour.com